{"id":452,"date":"2022-11-20T13:16:52","date_gmt":"2022-11-20T18:16:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/?page_id=452"},"modified":"2022-12-09T15:58:37","modified_gmt":"2022-12-09T20:58:37","slug":"roman-period-monumental-funerary-practices-in-north-africa","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/parent-page-2\/roman-period-monumental-funerary-practices-in-north-africa\/","title":{"rendered":"Roman Period Monumental Funerary Practices in North Africa"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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fg.1 <\/strong>The Thugga mausoleum dates to the
late third century BCE. It is a three story
tower set on a pedestal.
(Image: IssamBarhoumi)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n
\"\"
fg.2<\/strong> The mausolea at Ghirza date to the late third and
fourth century CE. The image shows three temple style
tombs set on pedestals. (Image: Jona Lendering) <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Monumental architecture provides very informative insight regarding what a given culture values, its concepts and representations of wealth, and often the political structure as well. Monumental funerary architecture does all of these things while also connecting an individual, or a family, to both the land and the cultural beliefs represented by the mausoleum. Because of the connection of an individual to the society, tombs become a significant source of information about the cultural values held and promoted by the society. Accordingly, individuals wish to associate their families with these values through their tombs\u2014as the adage goes, \u201cno one buries themself.\u201d As true as this is now, it was certainly true in Roman North Africa. The individuals buried in these monumental mausolea were done so by people who wished to convey the significance of the deceased to their society at large as well as to indicate their own importance via their connection to the deceased. The wealth required to build a tomb such as the ones depicted above is quite significant, and the fact that there are over 340 mausolea from the Roman period in Northern Africa demonstrates that there was a lot of wealth in Northern Africa during this time (Moore 2007, 75). Not only are the structures themselves significant to understanding the culture that produced such tombs, but many of these tombs have inscriptions and\/or carvings that provide additional layers of information. The tombs from Roman North Africa predominantly take two distinct forms. The first form is the so-called tower mausolea (fg.1). These tombs are aptly named as they are slender towers. The second type of tombs are the temple mausolea, which appear (fg.2) as small version of a typical roman temple with columns on the front and were often raised on pedestals. Both of these types of mausolea bring their own specific, cultural significances and connections with the past, but they nevertheless signify the desire to connect and to associate the person buried with a specific cultural history.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tower Mausoleum<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tower mausolea appear as frequently as temple mausolea during the Roman period, but have very different societal backgrounds. In Africa the style of tower mausolea predates the temple style. In fact, before the Romans arrived in North Africa in the third century BCE, tower mausolea already littered the landscape (Moore 2007, 77-78). From what is now Algeria to Libya, tower mausolea were a well-established style of funerary monument. It is thought that this style came from the eastern Mediterranean (Stone 2007, 6). As shown by the fact that the tower style predates the Romans, appears across North Africa, and has discernable eastern influences, it seems as though the tower style connects culturally with the land before Romans. In other words, the choice to have a tomb be in the tower style during the Roman period would serve to connect the individual being buried to the North African culture, not Roman culture. These two cultures are not mutually exclusive, however, as in any society where there are people of different cultures living with each other, there is bound to be overlap; nonetheless, tower mausolea seem to indicate a connection with a culture that is inherently not Roman.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Thugga mausoleum<\/a> (fg.1) is one of the best examples of a pre-Roman tower mausoleum. The mausoleum has three layers, building upwards. The base has relief designs that originated in style in the Levant and the second story has classical Greek colonnades. The third story is fashioned with a relief scene of two figures and is in a Persian style (Quinn 2011, 179). The mix of these Eastern styles demonstrates the tower mausolea\u2019s cultural roots. The Thugga mausoleum dates to the end of the third century BCE shortly before the Romans arrive. The mausoleum also includes a bilingual inscription in Punic script and Libyan script. The script is well worn and, therefore, not much can be discerned from it. It does give a name, but it is uncertain what role in the mausoleum the person named had. There are several other mausolea from the Hellenistic period that appear across the Maghreb; however, no other is as well preserved as the Thugga mausoleum (Quinn 2011, 182-184). Thus, the Thugga mausoleum provides further proof that tower mausolea connect to a culture outside of Roman culture. This mausoleum is evidence of a North African culture that pre-dates and persists through the Roman period.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Temple Mausoleum            <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

As mentioned above, during the Roman period there are about as many temple mausolea as there are tower mausolea. Unlike tower mausolea, temple mausolea are very Roman in their style. The temple style tombs start to appear in North Africa when the Romans do and are built in a distinctive Greco-Roman style, even though they are built from local materials. Temple mausolea often had one or more of statues, inscriptions, and relief images carved onto the structure. Many of these were typical roman scenes of sacrifice (Nikolaus 2016, 206-207). Not only is such a scene typical of Roman public art, but it also depicts a public ceremony central to Roman public life. By depicting these scenes on a tomb built in a temple style, there is a strong association between the inhabitant of the tomb and Roman public life. This connection indicates that the person buried there was an important figure\u2014at least locally\u2014to the Roman public life of the town\/region where the mausoleum is located. Moreover, the temple style tomb was very popular in Italy itself as indicated by the number of temple style tombs that exist in the necropolis in Pompeii. The tombs in Pompeii were meant to signify social status, wealth, and political status (Yasin 2005, 437). The temple style tombs at Pompeii signify the Roman influence on the style and show how the style connects with Roman identity. They also indicate how the social practice of monumental tomb making spread throughout the Roman Empire.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
fg.3<\/strong> The Neopunic tower-mausoleum in Makthar dates to the second and third centuries CE. It is a slender tower with a door at the base and an open space near the top below a triangular point at the top. (Image: Dali Bey)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The aptly named \u201cNeopunic\u201d tower-mausoleum is a prime example of a Roman era tower mausoleum from the second and third century CE. As seen in the image (fg.3) the tower is mostly intact and is a considerable monument in the landscape (Moore 2007, 76 & 84). Even though the tower does not have to be so tall to dominate the landscape as it does, this shows that there is an idea as to what a tower mausoleum should look like and even though there are different stylistic choices made for each specific tower mausoleum, they are all similar in general shape. At the top of the tower there is a space that would likely have contained a statue. Unfortunately, the statue has been lost to time, either from looting or some other reason. Other than where the statue would have been, there is not much else in terms of decoration. Decoration is another feature that varies from mausoleum to mausoleum regardless of style.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ghirza<\/a> is perhaps the site of the most famous Roman era temple mausolea in North Africa. These mausolea are from the late third to the fourth century CE. As seen above (fg.1), the tombs at Ghirza are mostly exclusively temple style. Though each one varies slightly in various details, the tombs feature columns sitting upon a pedestal. The tombs at Ghirza represent the one of the largest single sites of monumental funerary structures in North Africa during the Roman period (Mattingly 2011, 248). These tombs are located on the main road in and out of the town of Ghirza which means that anyone entering or leaving the town would not only see the tombs but would certainly recognize the individuals\u2019 connections to Roman identity as well. It is impossible to say exactly who the individuals buried in the Ghirza mausolea were, but it is clear that whoever buried them wanted their relationship to Rome to be prominent. Like the \u201cNeopunic\u201d tower-mausoleum mentioned above, the Ghirza mausolea dominate the surrounding landscape. The columns are massive and the fact that the temple portion of each of the tombs sits upon a pedestal only makes the mausolea\u2019s presence larger. The Ghirza mausolea also feature friezes that have depictions of people as well as animals. The subjects of these depictions are typical of Roman public facing art, but the style is North African. This mix is a product of where the tomb is located and the fact that it was likely local masons who crafted the tombs. Many of these tombs also feature Latin inscriptions which further demonstrate the influence of Roman culture in the region (Mattingly 2011, 249-250). The use of imagery at Ghirza \u201cdemonstrated how Roman imperial art could provide an image pool that was manipulated to represent indigenous traditions and values to support the legality of Roman power within local society\u201d (Nikolaus 2016, 200). Nikolaus references Mattingly\u2019s work in this quote, and they posit that the artwork reflects local traditions emerging on these Roman style tombs which, in fact, reinforces the new power dynamic of Rome as the dominant power and Romans as the ruling class. The tombs at Ghirza show the Roman influence on the region and promote Roman identity through the association of Roman culture with the architectural style.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"
fg.4<\/strong> The Mausoleum of Iulii at Makthar dates the the second and third centuries CE. It is a square temple style mausoleum with a frieze and inscription. (Image TOUMOU)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The Mausoleum of the Iulii at Makthar (fg.4) is another mausoleum from the second to third century CE. This mausoleum, as seen in the image, has an inscription and a relief image. The relief is of a sacrifice procession and similar reliefs are on three other mausolea in the region (Moore 2007, 86-87). The importance of this relief is that it is of a procession which is a subject adorning many Greco-Roman public facing artworks, most notably temples. It is important to note that the individual is being associated with such a public, and distinctly, Roman ritual.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In Roman North Africa, monumental funerary architecture provides a glimpse into the social dynamic of Roman occupied North Africa. The mausolea from this time period comes primarily in two distinct styles, each representing the different power dynamics at play in North Africa during this time. Monumental architecture such as the mausolea talked about in this paper would have been available only to the wealthiest of people in North Africa during the Roman period. These mausolea, therefore, primarily provide information about the social dynamics of the elites.  The physical building of the mausolea and the crafting of the art that accompanied the structure, however, would have been done by laborers. Thus, while the tombs do not necessarily provide information about the details of the laborers\u2019 lives in the same manner that they do the inhabitant of the tomb, the mausolea do provide information on the types of trades in Northern Africa at the time. While it was once thought that the mausolea in North Africa only belonged to Romans, it has since been proven that local elites also commissioned the building of mausolea (Nikolaus 2016, 199). The presence of tower mausolea indicate a strong pre-Roman culture that continued to exist throughout the Roman period despite the efforts to \u201cRomanize\u201d North Africa. The attempted \u201cRomanization\u201d of North Africa is represented by the temple mausolea and the imagery on them. The depictions of Roman practices and cultural ideals on the tombs located in public places show the attempts of the Romans to use mausolea as tools of propaganda to subvert local cultures and to promote Roman culture.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There is much to be learned about the social dynamics in the Maghreb during the Roman period through comparing these styles of mausolea. The tower and temple mausolea represent competing cultural viewpoints among the elite members of society during this timeframe. While some of the artistic features of the tombs could indicate a level of hybridity that grew from the prolonged interaction between different peoples, there is also a clear indication of cultural exploitation. We see, then, that the mausolea demonstrate powerfully that during the Roman Period, North Africa remained socially diverse even as the Romans asserted their political dominance within the region.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Works Cited<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nikolaus, Julia. \u201cBEYOND GHIRZA: ROMAN-PERIOD MAUSOLEA IN TRIPOLITANIA.\u201d De Africa Romaque: Merging Cultures across North Africa<\/em>, edited by Julia Nikolaus et al., Society for Libyan Studies, 2016, pp. 199\u2013214. JSTOR<\/em>, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/j.ctvk8w1m1.21. Accessed 19 Nov. 2022.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mattingly, David J. \u201cFamily Values: ART AND POWER AT GHIRZA IN THE LIBYAN PRE-DESERT.\u201d Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire: Experiencing the Roman Empire<\/em>, REV-Revised, Princeton University Press, 2011, pp. 246\u201368. JSTOR<\/em>, http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/j.ctt4cgd4k.16. Accessed 19 Nov. 2022.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Moore, Jennifer P. \u201c4. The \u2018Mausoleum Culture\u2019 of Africa Proconsularis.\u201d Mortuary Landscapes of North Africa<\/em>, 2007, pp. 75\u2013109., https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/9781442628144-006.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Quinn, Josephine Crawley. \u201cMonumental Power: \u2018Numidian Royal Architecture\u2019 in Context.\u201d The Hellenistic West<\/em>, 2013, pp. 179\u2013215., https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/cbo9781139505987.008.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Stone, David L., and Lea M. Stirling. \u201cFunerary Monuments and Mortuary Practices in the Landscapes of North Africa.\u201d Mortuary Landscapes of North Africa<\/em>, edited by DAVID L. STONE and LEA M. STIRLING, University of Toronto Press, 2007, pp. 3\u201331. JSTOR<\/em>, http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.3138\/j.ctt1287ptj.5. Accessed 19 Nov. 2022.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yasin, Ann Marie. \u201cFunerary Monuments and Collective Identity: From Roman Family to Christian Community.\u201d The Art Bulletin<\/em>, vol. 87, no. 3, 2005, pp. 433\u201357. JSTOR<\/em>, http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/25067190. Accessed 19 Nov. 2022.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Introduction Monumental architecture provides very informative insight regarding what a given culture values, its concepts and representations of wealth, and often the political structure as well. Monumental funerary architecture does all of these things while also connecting an individual, or a family, to both the land and the cultural beliefs represented by the mausoleum. Because …<\/p>\n

Roman Period Monumental Funerary Practices in North Africa<\/span> Read More »<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":8,"featured_media":0,"parent":550,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-452","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/452","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/8"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=452"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/452\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1238,"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/452\/revisions\/1238"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/550"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/dh.classics.sites.carleton.edu\/clas220ancientafrica\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=452"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}